Graphene Oxide Being Tested on Animals as an Adjuvant in Vaccines

Graphene oxide (GO) is a material made from graphene, a very thin form of carbon, with oxygen added to its structure. Scientists have studied GO for possible medical uses, including its use as an ingredient in vaccines. Other researchers have examined what happens when GO comes into contact with human cells. A review published in 2023 in International Immunopharmacology and another study published in 2019 in Nanomaterials (Basel) provide information about GO’s possible use in vaccines and its effects on cells.^{1 2}

Some vaccines contain ingredients known as adjuvants, which trigger strong inflammatory responses in the body. In a 2023 review, researchers examined the use of graphene oxide (GO) as a possible vaccine adjuvant. The review explains that GO can attach to and carry other substances because of its structure. Researchers have investigated whether GO could carry vaccine ingredients to immune cells, allowing these cells to recognize and respond to them.³

The review also describes research showing that GO can interact with immune cells and affect the body’s early immune response. Researchers have studied whether adding GO to a vaccine could change how strongly the immune system responds to other vaccine ingredients.⁴

Testing Graphene Oxide as an Influenza Vaccine Adjuvant

 A 2024 study provided experimental evidence for the use of a graphene oxide-based material as a vaccine adjuvant. Researchers developed a formulation called ZnGC-R using graphene oxide quantum dots combined with other compounds and tested it with an inactivated H1N1 influenza vaccine. In experimental models, the formulation increased antibody responses and activated several types of immune cells, including B cells and T cells.⁵

The researchers also reported stronger antibody responses than those produced by an aluminum-based adjuvant, and found that the vaccine protected animals against H1N1 infection. However, these findings do not show that the formulation is safe or effective in humans. The study used experimental models and an animal challenge model, not a human clinical trial.

Damaging Effects of Graphene Oxide on Human Kidney Cells

Other researchers have also studied whether GO can harm cells. A 2019 study specifically examined human embryonic kidney cells, known as HEK293 cells.⁶ HEK293 cells, which originated from an aborted fetus, were transformed and immortalized in 1973 by a scientist working in a laboratory in the Netherlands.  To grow viruses, a host cell is needed, and vaccine developers like HEK293 because the cells are malleable and can be transformed into virus factories that are used to develop and test vaccines.⁷

In the 2019 study, researchers used the HEK293 cells to test the use of GO as a vaccine adjuvant. They exposed the human kidney cells to different amounts of GO for 24 hours and then measured changes in cell health.⁸ They found that GO reduced the number of living kidney cells. Larger amounts of GO generally caused greater reductions in cell survival and growth. The study also found that the exposed cells produced higher levels of reactive oxygen species, which can contribute to oxidative stress.⁹

The researchers also found changes in the mitochondria, parts of cells that produce energy. GO exposure reduced the cell energy production and affected how the mitochondria functioned. The study also found damage to the cell DNA, which carries the instructions cells need to function. In addition, the researchers found changes associated with apoptosis, a process in which cells break down and die.¹⁰

Although the study used human kidney cells to test GO in animals, the researchers did not test GO in human beings. Instead, they exposed the HEK293 human kidney cells grown in a laboratory to GO and observed how the cells responded. Cell viability and proliferation assays revealed a significant dose-dependent cytotoxic effect on HEK293 cells, including DNA damage and altered expression of genes.¹¹

Questions About Toxicity of Graphene Oxide Remain

Research has examined GO as a possible vaccine adjuvant, but significant questions about toxicity remain. Scientists need to better understand how GO affects the body over longer periods, what amount can be used safely, and how repeated exposure may affect cells and tissues.

In a chapter of a recently published book Chemistry of Graphene – Synthesis, Reactivity, Applications and Toxicities, authors discussed GO nanotoxicity and stated that “Inflammation is a key indicator of nanotoxicity exhibited by GO. It serves as a multifaceted orchestrator of cellular and tissue responses, setting in motion the intricate cascade of events leading to the production of pro—inflammatory cytokinds and recruitment of immune cells.” They warned that:

Numerous studies have demonstrated that GO has the ability to induce oxidative stress, inflammation, genotoxicity, and cytotoxicity in cell types and animal models. Importantly, the toxicity of GO is influenced by its size, morphology, charge and surface functional groups.¹²

The findings from laboratory studies, including toxic effects observed in human embryonic kidney cells, highlight the need for further research to determine the potential long-term negative effects of GO on human health when included as an ingredient in biological products like vaccines.^{13 14}

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